Post by Master Kim on May 22, 2015 15:09:03 GMT -5
Salty taste is categorized in Water element.
Thus, salt is supposed to be good for water organs of kidneys and bladder and metal organs of lungs and large intestine.
Of course, too much consumption of salt would harm kidneys and bladder. Nevertheless, diet with low salt consumption would be very harmful.
Below article proves that the ancient oriental medicine is accurate.
Thus, salt is supposed to be good for water organs of kidneys and bladder and metal organs of lungs and large intestine.
Of course, too much consumption of salt would harm kidneys and bladder. Nevertheless, diet with low salt consumption would be very harmful.
Below article proves that the ancient oriental medicine is accurate.
Urinary Sodium and Potassium Excretion and Risk of Cardiovascular Events - jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1105553
JAMA - The Journal of the American Medical Association
November 23/30, 2011, Vol 306, No. 20
Martin J. O'Donnell, MB, PhD; Salim Yusuf, DPhil, FRCPC, FRSC; Andrew Mente, PhD; Peggy Gao, MSc; Johannes F. Mann, MD; Koon Teo, MB, PhD; Matthew McQueen, MD; Peter Sleight, MD; Arya M. Sharma, MD; Antonio Dans, MD; Jeffrey Probstfield, MD; Roland E. Schmieder, M
ABSTRACT
Context The precise relationship between sodium and potassium intake and cardiovascular (CV) risk remains uncertain, especially in patients with CV disease.
Objective To determine the association between estimated urinary sodium and potassium excretion (surrogates for intake) and CV events in patients with established CV disease or diabetes mellitus.
Design, Setting, and Patients Observational analyses of 2 cohorts (N = 28 880) included in the ONTARGET and TRANSCEND trials (November 2001-March 2008 from initial recruitment to final follow-up). We estimated 24-hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion from a morning fasting urine sample (Kawasaki formula). We used restricted cubic spline plots to describe the association between sodium and potassium excretion and CV events and mortality, and to identify reference categories for sodium and potassium excretion. We used Cox proportional hazards multivariable models to determine the association of urinary sodium and potassium with CV events and mortality.
Main Outcome Measures CV death, myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, and hospitalization for congestive heart failure (CHF).
Results At baseline, the mean (SD) estimated 24-hour excretion for sodium was 4.77 g (1.61); and for potassium was 2.19 g (0.57). After a median follow-up of 56 months, the composite outcome occurred in 4729 (16.4%) participants, including 2057 CV deaths, 1412 with MI, 1282 with stroke, and 1213 with hospitalization for CHF. Compared with the reference group with estimated baseline sodium excretion of 4 to 5.99 g per day (n = 14 156; 6.3% participants with CV death, 4.6% with MI, 4.2% with stroke, and 3.8% admitted to hospital with CHF), higher baseline sodium excretion was associated with an increased risk of CV death (9.7% for 7-8 g/day; hazard ratio
, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.26-1.86; and 11.2% for >8 g/day; HR, 1.66; 95% CI, 1.31-2.10), MI (6.8%; HR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.11-1.98 for >8 g/day), stroke (6.6%; HR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.09-2.01 for >8 g/day), and hospitalization for CHF (6.5%; HR, 1.51; 1.12-2.05 for >8 g/day). Lower sodium excretion was associated with an increased risk of CV death (8.6%; HR, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.02-1.39 for 2-2.99 g/day; 10.6%; HR, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.09-1.73 for <2 g/day), and hospitalization for CHF (5.2%; HR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.01-1.49 for 2-2.99 g/day) on multivariable analysis. Compared with an estimated potassium excretion of less than 1.5 g per day (n = 2194; 6.2% with stroke), higher potassium excretion was associated with a reduced risk of stroke (4.7% [HR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.63-0.94] for 1.5-1.99 g/day; 4.3% [HR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.59-0.90] for 2-2.49 g/day; 3.9% [HR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.56-0.91] for 2.5-3 g/day; and 3.5% [HR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.49-0.92] for >3 g/day) on multivariable analysis.
Conclusions The association between estimated sodium excretion and CV events was J-shaped. Compared with baseline sodium excretion of 4 to 5.99 g per day, sodium excretion of greater than 7 g per day was associated with an increased risk of all CV events, and a sodium excretion of less than 3 g per day was associated with increased risk of CV mortality and hospitalization for CHF. Higher estimated potassium excretion was associated with a reduced risk of stroke.
There is uncertainty regarding the optimal daily intake of sodium, which confers most protection against the risk of cardiovascular (CV) disease.1 The World Health Organization2 recommends a sodium intake of less than 2 g per day, a level that is largely based on projections made from relatively small and short-term clinical trials evaluating the effects of sodium restriction on blood pressure in primary prevention populations.3 However, findings from prospective cohort studies, evaluating the association between sodium intake and CV events, have been conflicting.1 For example, although some have reported a positive association between sodium intake and CV mortality,4- 7 others have not,8- 11 and some have reported an inverse association.12,13 In particular, a recent study13 has rekindled the controversy by reporting an increased risk in CV mortality at low sodium intake levels that are recommended by many current guidelines. Clarifying the optimal daily intake of sodium is particularly important in patients with established CV disease, where it has been inadequately studied. Patients with CV disease may be especially vulnerable to the CV effects of high and low sodium intake and are most likely to receive recommendations on restricting sodium intake.
Epidemiological studies have also reported that increased potassium intake is associated with reduced risk of CV disease, most notably for stroke,14 although the optimal level of daily potassium intake has not been established. Potassium intake is also a proposed modifier of the association between sodium intake and CV disease.15
We determined the association between sodium and potassium excretion (as measures of intake) and CV events and mortality in a cohort of 29 000 high-risk patients, using calculated estimates of 24-hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion.
Figure 1. Estimated 24-Hour Urinary Excretion of Sodium and Composite of Cardiovascular Death, Stroke, Myocardial Infarction, and Hospitalization for Congestive Heart Failure
Spline plot for adjusted Cox models. Median intake is reference standard. Salt approximates 2.5 × sodium g per day. Model was adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity (white vs nonwhite); prior history of stroke or myocardial infarction; creatinine, body mass index; comorbid vascular risk factors (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, atrial fibrillation, smoking, low- and high-density lipoprotein); treatment allocation (ramipril, telmisartan, neither, or both); treatment with statins, β-blockers, diuretic therapy, calcium antagonist, and antithrombotic therapy; fruit and vegetable consumption, level of exercise; baseline blood pressure and change in systolic blood pressure from baseline to last follow-up; and urinary potassium. Dashed lines indicate 95% CIs. Events and numbers at risk are shown between values on x-axis because they indicate the numeric range between these values.
aSpline curve truncated at 12 g per day (63 participants had sodium excretion >12 g/d, event rate 21/63).
.....
Click below link for more...
jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1105553
JAMA - The Journal of the American Medical Association
November 23/30, 2011, Vol 306, No. 20
Martin J. O'Donnell, MB, PhD; Salim Yusuf, DPhil, FRCPC, FRSC; Andrew Mente, PhD; Peggy Gao, MSc; Johannes F. Mann, MD; Koon Teo, MB, PhD; Matthew McQueen, MD; Peter Sleight, MD; Arya M. Sharma, MD; Antonio Dans, MD; Jeffrey Probstfield, MD; Roland E. Schmieder, M
ABSTRACT
Context The precise relationship between sodium and potassium intake and cardiovascular (CV) risk remains uncertain, especially in patients with CV disease.
Objective To determine the association between estimated urinary sodium and potassium excretion (surrogates for intake) and CV events in patients with established CV disease or diabetes mellitus.
Design, Setting, and Patients Observational analyses of 2 cohorts (N = 28 880) included in the ONTARGET and TRANSCEND trials (November 2001-March 2008 from initial recruitment to final follow-up). We estimated 24-hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion from a morning fasting urine sample (Kawasaki formula). We used restricted cubic spline plots to describe the association between sodium and potassium excretion and CV events and mortality, and to identify reference categories for sodium and potassium excretion. We used Cox proportional hazards multivariable models to determine the association of urinary sodium and potassium with CV events and mortality.
Main Outcome Measures CV death, myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, and hospitalization for congestive heart failure (CHF).
Results At baseline, the mean (SD) estimated 24-hour excretion for sodium was 4.77 g (1.61); and for potassium was 2.19 g (0.57). After a median follow-up of 56 months, the composite outcome occurred in 4729 (16.4%) participants, including 2057 CV deaths, 1412 with MI, 1282 with stroke, and 1213 with hospitalization for CHF. Compared with the reference group with estimated baseline sodium excretion of 4 to 5.99 g per day (n = 14 156; 6.3% participants with CV death, 4.6% with MI, 4.2% with stroke, and 3.8% admitted to hospital with CHF), higher baseline sodium excretion was associated with an increased risk of CV death (9.7% for 7-8 g/day; hazard ratio
, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.26-1.86; and 11.2% for >8 g/day; HR, 1.66; 95% CI, 1.31-2.10), MI (6.8%; HR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.11-1.98 for >8 g/day), stroke (6.6%; HR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.09-2.01 for >8 g/day), and hospitalization for CHF (6.5%; HR, 1.51; 1.12-2.05 for >8 g/day). Lower sodium excretion was associated with an increased risk of CV death (8.6%; HR, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.02-1.39 for 2-2.99 g/day; 10.6%; HR, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.09-1.73 for <2 g/day), and hospitalization for CHF (5.2%; HR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.01-1.49 for 2-2.99 g/day) on multivariable analysis. Compared with an estimated potassium excretion of less than 1.5 g per day (n = 2194; 6.2% with stroke), higher potassium excretion was associated with a reduced risk of stroke (4.7% [HR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.63-0.94] for 1.5-1.99 g/day; 4.3% [HR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.59-0.90] for 2-2.49 g/day; 3.9% [HR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.56-0.91] for 2.5-3 g/day; and 3.5% [HR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.49-0.92] for >3 g/day) on multivariable analysis.
Conclusions The association between estimated sodium excretion and CV events was J-shaped. Compared with baseline sodium excretion of 4 to 5.99 g per day, sodium excretion of greater than 7 g per day was associated with an increased risk of all CV events, and a sodium excretion of less than 3 g per day was associated with increased risk of CV mortality and hospitalization for CHF. Higher estimated potassium excretion was associated with a reduced risk of stroke.
There is uncertainty regarding the optimal daily intake of sodium, which confers most protection against the risk of cardiovascular (CV) disease.1 The World Health Organization2 recommends a sodium intake of less than 2 g per day, a level that is largely based on projections made from relatively small and short-term clinical trials evaluating the effects of sodium restriction on blood pressure in primary prevention populations.3 However, findings from prospective cohort studies, evaluating the association between sodium intake and CV events, have been conflicting.1 For example, although some have reported a positive association between sodium intake and CV mortality,4- 7 others have not,8- 11 and some have reported an inverse association.12,13 In particular, a recent study13 has rekindled the controversy by reporting an increased risk in CV mortality at low sodium intake levels that are recommended by many current guidelines. Clarifying the optimal daily intake of sodium is particularly important in patients with established CV disease, where it has been inadequately studied. Patients with CV disease may be especially vulnerable to the CV effects of high and low sodium intake and are most likely to receive recommendations on restricting sodium intake.
Epidemiological studies have also reported that increased potassium intake is associated with reduced risk of CV disease, most notably for stroke,14 although the optimal level of daily potassium intake has not been established. Potassium intake is also a proposed modifier of the association between sodium intake and CV disease.15
We determined the association between sodium and potassium excretion (as measures of intake) and CV events and mortality in a cohort of 29 000 high-risk patients, using calculated estimates of 24-hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion.
Figure 1. Estimated 24-Hour Urinary Excretion of Sodium and Composite of Cardiovascular Death, Stroke, Myocardial Infarction, and Hospitalization for Congestive Heart Failure
Spline plot for adjusted Cox models. Median intake is reference standard. Salt approximates 2.5 × sodium g per day. Model was adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity (white vs nonwhite); prior history of stroke or myocardial infarction; creatinine, body mass index; comorbid vascular risk factors (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, atrial fibrillation, smoking, low- and high-density lipoprotein); treatment allocation (ramipril, telmisartan, neither, or both); treatment with statins, β-blockers, diuretic therapy, calcium antagonist, and antithrombotic therapy; fruit and vegetable consumption, level of exercise; baseline blood pressure and change in systolic blood pressure from baseline to last follow-up; and urinary potassium. Dashed lines indicate 95% CIs. Events and numbers at risk are shown between values on x-axis because they indicate the numeric range between these values.
aSpline curve truncated at 12 g per day (63 participants had sodium excretion >12 g/d, event rate 21/63).
.....
Click below link for more...
jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1105553